The expansion of fertilizer consumption in Argentina can be explained by two main factors, according to a survey by agronomist Daniela Belen Regeiro and Sofia Gayo, who are agricultural analysts at the Department of Research and Technological Prospection of the Bolsa de Cereales de Buenos Aires (BCBA, Buenos Aires Grain Exchange).
The first factor was the expansion of the area planted with corn, wheat and barley, points out the study by the two Argentine agricultural analysts, called Survey of Applied Agricultural Technology (ReTAA). The second factor to contribute directly to the increase in fertilizer consumption in one of the world's largest agricultural producers is related to the increase in fertilizer doses in grasses: corn, wheat, barley and sorghum.
Nitrogen fertilizers were considered the most important nutrients in the 2021-22 harvest, with a participation of 59 percent of the total volume. Next, points out the survey, comes the group of phosphate fertilizers, which totaled 41 percent. “It is important to highlight that five harvests ago, phosphates were the most important, with a participation of 52 percent of the total volume, and nitrogenous ones represented 48 percent. This variation is explained mainly by the differences in the fertilization of soybeans and grasses and, in turn, by the change in the area planted with these crops”, says Daniela Belen Regeiro.
Daniela Belen Regeiro
In Argentina, soybeans are fertilized mainly with phosphorus, explains the specialist. This is because the supply of nitrogen comes mainly from biological nitrogen fixation by bacteria present in the soil. On the other hand, grasses can receive
phosphorus fertilization at sowing and also nitrogen fertilization both during sowing periods and periods such as wheat or corn tillering.
“Thinking about it, and analyzing the planted area of these crops, it is possible to understand the volume of consumption of each chemical group,” says agronomist Sofia Gayo, adding that the crops that most demanded fertilization were the grasses: corn, wheat, barley and sorghum. “In all cases, an increase in the applied fertilizer doses was detected, mainly in the nitrogen ones. The average doses of nitrogen fertilization in the 2021-22 campaign were: wheat 80 kg N/hectare (ha) sown, barley 94 kg N/ha sown, maize (early and late) 73 kg N/ha sown and grain sorghum 30 kg N/ha sown.”
Regeiro points out the crops were more fertilized “because the producer knows that there is a response to the applied technology.” She adds that Argentines are proving the good results of using fertilizers both through the increase in crop yields and the quality of the harvested product.
Applied technologiesThe Survey of Applied Agricultural Technology covers the fertilizers most used in extensive crops for commercial grains. Among the products that are researched in ReTAA, Regeiro says the most used liquid fertilizers are UAN and Solmix.
“In the 2021-22 harvest, grasses, mainly corn and wheat, demanded a greater volume of fertilizers. Concerning nitrogenous fertilizers, wheat presented a national average dose of 151 kg of urea per hectare applied and 183 litres of Solmix per hectare applied. Phosphate fertilization was based on the use of PMA (83 kg PMA/hectare applied) and PDA (81 kg PMA/hectare applied),” she notes.
In turn, Gayo points out that the corn crop was fertilized last season with 153 kg of urea/hectare applied and 76 kg of PMA/hectare applied. “It is important to note that these are the most used sources, but many times others are complemented/used. Finally, in soybean cultivation, SPS was mainly used to supply phosphorus and sulphur (66 kg SPS/hectare applied) and TPS (49 kg SPT/hectare applied).”
Sofia Gayo
Market and opportunties analysisAsked about the potential of the fertilizer market in Argentina, the experts point to the results of studies and research on productivity and nutritional deficiencies in Argentina carried out by the University of Nebraska Lincoln (U.S.) in partnership with the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences from the University of Mar del Plata. According to these surveys, if the objective is to increase the attainable yield of crops, which implies reducing the difference between the current yield and the attainable yield, fertilization doses must be increased. This paves the
way for a great market opportunity for companies that supply crop nutrition.
In 2022 a group of 29 Argentine scientists and professionals from a wide range of local and international organizations associated with research, teaching and agricultural extension was held at the BCBA. Nutrient management in Argentine agricultural production systems was analyzed, discussed and debated, which generated a consensus called the “Declaration of Buenos Aires on the nutrient gap in Argentina”. This event represented a new milestone in the context of the collaboration between the Bolsa de Buenos Aires, the University of Nebraska Lincoln, Argentine universities and several other research organizations. The partnership began in 2012 under the Global Atlas of Yield Gap Project, led by the University of Nebraska Lincoln. The first efforts of this project resulted in a mapping of productivity gaps for wheat, soybeans and corn.
The declaration represented a new step, which served as the basis for proposing an agenda of solutions to close these productivity gaps, more specifically related to crop nutrition. According to those involved, the project required work carried out by a group of 29 renowned specialists in the area of crop nutrition, soils, production systems and sustainability, for two years. Its main output is a joint declaration that “highlights the importance of greater and better use of nutrients as a fundamental pillar to promote a sustainable intensification of agricultural production systems in Argentina.”
Juan Pablo Monzón, professor at the University of Mar del Plata and the University of Nebraska Lincoln, presented his thesis that there is a “nutrient gap in Argentina. The projected increase in global demand for food, a competitive agricultural sector, and an intermediate level of income gap put Argentina in an enviable position to intensify agricultural production over the next 30 years,” he says. “Current nutrient applications are not sufficient to close the yield gap and in many cases, balances indicate nutrient export without replacement. Any program that aims to increase current productivity, making sustainable use of the soil resource, will require an explicit recognition of the need to increase the use of nutrients in Argentina.”
Monzón, who is also a researcher at the Argentinean CONICET (National Scientific and Technical Research Council), points out that, thinking about the future, Argentina needs to take four steps. “First, optimize crop nutrition, taking into account the potential yield of upland. Second, optimize nutrient application depending on the environment (climate and soil). Third, develop fertilizer tools at the producer level. Fourth and last, to encourage dialogue between public and private entities that allow the articulation of policies for the responsible use of nutrients.”
A very relevant issue for Argentina is the problem of the need to import inputs, which generates a very large exposure to price fluctuations in the international market. The country imports approximately 65 percent of what it consumes, with China, Egypt, Morocco and the U.S. being the main suppliers. The remaining 35 percent of fertilizer consumption in Argentina comes from domestic industrial production, where there is significant market consolidation, with the 10 largest companies representing 75 percent of the total market share, heavily concentrated in the production of nitrogen-based fertilizers.
In recent years, the domestic industry has experienced remarkable growth. Since the year 2000, the consumption of fertilizers produced in the country has increased by 650 percent. Although fertilizer consumption has increased dramatically in recent decades, Argentina still lags far behind other major agricultural-producing countries. Regarding the application of fertilizers per hectare of arable land, Argentina ranks 111th in the world, according to data from the World Bank.
Although fertilizer application varies significantly by region, on average the amount of fertilizer applied meets only 46 percent of crop fertilization needs nationwide. Several factors help to explain this disparity compared with other producing countries. First, Argentina's soils are endowed with good nutrient levels, which allow for high yields despite low fertilization rates. Second, political and tax issues reduce the price received by the producer and distort relative prices, negatively affecting input-output relationships.
The war between Ukraine and Russia has created great instability in agricultural markets in general, where Argentina is uniquely positioned to take advantage of the situation and establish itself as a global agricultural power. However, the increase in fertilizer prices represents a major challenge for the application of these inputs, given the discouragement generated by the worsening of input-output relations. It is in this scenario of instability that Argentines are looking for a way out of the dilemma of producing more, fertilizing more, but equating it with the difficulties of their economy in crisis. ●
Current nutrient applications are notsufficient to close the yield gap.
In the first in our series of "View From The Field", we have an opinion piece from Oded Achilea, Ph.D., Contributing Editor for New AG International, and consultant in agriculture following a long career in the fertilizer industry.
But, before entering into the arguments, one must take into account that worldwide population is struggling against twin problems of the shortage of fertile soil (Table 1), and of adequate quality irrigation water. Therefore, the question of chemical and organic plant nutrition must be tightly connected with the urgent need to produce an increasing volume of nutritious food for the 9.7 billion people who are forecast to inhabit planet Earth by the year 2050.
Table 1: Global reduction in per-capita arable land, between mid-20th and mid-21st centuries.
References: FAO and World Bank
Let's examine the relevant aspects of chemical and organic fertilizers, judging them by their chemical, economic, nutritional, ecological and sustainable features.
It's All ChemistryUrea is one of the most concentrated nitrogenous fertilizers (46% N w/w), which explains its immense worldwide demand, and positioning it as the most-used nitrogen fertilizer in the world (annual production of ~179 million tonnes, ref. Yara, 2022). It is industrially produced by reacting ammonia and CO2, in many worldwide commercial facilities. Meanwhile, naturally occurring urea is the chief nitrogenous end-product of the metabolic breakdown of proteins in all mammals and some fish species. Urea occurs at appreciable concentrations in the urine of all mammals; hence, it is found at marked concentrations in organic manures utilized in organic agriculture and horticulture. But is there any difference between a urea molecule that has been produced in a cow's liver, excreted and applied to the soil in the form of cow manure, compared to a urea molecule that has been industrially produced by reacting ammonia and CO2 in a commercial nitrogen manufacturing facility?
From the perspective of a plant root, the answer would be in the negative. The chemistry is the same. When plant roots sense nutrients, such as nitrate, ammonium, urea, phosphate, sulphate, etc., in their rhizosphere, it will not matter whether their sources are chemical or organic. The plant will take them up by the same absorption mechanism, and NUE (nutrient use efficiency), regardless of their original source. The plant will also equally integrate these raw materials into its normal metabolic processes.
The environmental aspect of urea productionPutting aside the different caloric values of meat and crop production for human diets, both involve emissions. It is well documented that the gas methane (CH4) is a byproduct of meat and dairy production. This gas is produced by microbes in the cattle's stomach during its normal digestion process, hence it is called 'enteric'. The majority of methane is excreted through its respiratory tracts. Methane is a 28-fold stronger greenhouse gas than CO2. Figure 1 shows methane emissions from livestock in 2020 in the U.S., showing that beef cows were responsible for some 72% of the country's enteric methane, while dairy cows' share amounted to approximately 25%. Figure 2 shows that enteric CH4 was the protagonist, representing 70% of all GHGs, well above the 23% manure derived CH4, while the share of NO2 was lower at 7%. The total from Figure 1 is 175 million metric tonnes CO2 equivalent.
Industrial production of urea consumes CO2 as a feedstock, at a 1:1 ratio. The nitrogenous feedstock for synthetic urea is ammonia, and an ammonia plant will produce combustion-derived CO2 in the production of ammonia, so the consumption of CO2 in urea production is one reason that ammonia and urea production units are co-located. Although there are emissions related to urea and ammonia production because of energy intensive nature of process, it is worth remembering that each tonne of urea involves the consumption of 0.73 tonne of carbon dioxide. This process, however, cannot be considered as environmental carbon sequestration, because once it is applied in the field, it will soon break down, releasing the carbon dioxide that was fixed during production.
Figure 1: USA CH4 Emissions from Enteric Fermentation (MMT CO2 Eq.). Source: EPA
References: FAO and EPA
Figure 2: USA Livestock GHG Emissions by Type (200MMT CO2 eq.) Source: EPA
The environmental price of the distribution of manures and compostsSince urea is the most concentrated solid nitrogenous fertilizer (46%N), its transportation from the production plant to its application fields is very economical. But the situation is very different when manures and composts are used as nitrogen carriers because they are normally around 15-fold poorer in nitrogen contents, making its transportation to remote fields very costly in terms of carbon footprint. In many ways, these delivery emissions are unavoidable, unless nearly all fertilizers required for the crops' nutrition are manufactured locally. This is not very realistic, and would also be subject to different levels of efficiency and environmental sustainability. Nevertheless, it could be argued that large-scale nitrogen plants in certain parts of the world are actually a more efficient way of producing nitrogen for the world, and therefore it is necessary to accept some emissions in its transport.
The challenge then moves to maximizing the efficiency of the urea that is applied.
Protecting against nitrogen losses after field application is one way to increase plant's nitrogen use efficiency. There currently exists an extensive array of methods that effectively protect industrially produced nitrogenous fertilizers, from disintegration, and from losing their nutritional value, shortly after field application. Some such methods are formulating them as slow-release and controlled-release fertilizers. Other effective methods are applying the fertilizers together with urease inhibitors, like NBPT, 4-bromophenylboronic acid and acetohydroxamic acid, or with nitrification inhibitors, such as DMPP, Nitrapyrin, DCD and Ethoxyquin. These agents are now widely used in agriculture and horticulture, by blending them with chemical fertilizers or coating their granules during their production processes. These methods remarkably increase the NUE of these chemical fertilizers. Trials intending to apply the latter methods to organic fertilizers have resulted, thus far, in very low success rates, mainly because some components of the manures neutralize the activity of nitrification inhibitors. A recent description of this neutralization pathway reveals that it is based on the competition between DMP (and its derivatives) and soil chelates, on acquisition of copper (Cu2+) and Zn (Zn2+) cations, which are indispensable for the activity of DMP (Corrochano-Monsalve, et al., 2021).
Other plant nutrients.So far, the arguments were focused on nitrogen, because it is, by far, the major nutrient applied in agriculture. But very similar considerations are valid regarding other nutrients applied to plant crops in the form of chemical fertilizers, or as organic manures, namely potassium, phosphate, calcium, magnesium, sulphur and trace elements. Actually, the feedstocks of many industrially produced mineral fertilizers are naturally found ores, or precipitates of ancient remnants of plants and living beings, such as calcium phosphates, mined in in various parts of the globe such as Morocco, Florida or in Finland. Therefore, in many cases, even industrial fertilizers originate from geological organic resources.
It is necessary to relate here also to the common prejudice that chemical fertilizers contain noxious materials while organic fertilizers are free from such compounds. This is an unfair representation because modern fertilizer producers are now very
sensitive towards the quality and pureness of their products, due to their obligation to comply with very strict human health and environmental regulations. Organic fertilizers, on the other hand, suffer from low N contents, coupled with their frequent sodic or saline contents, and of herbicides, pesticides and heavy metals contamination. As the preparation of composts and manures is often done on farms that do not necessarily follow health standards and processing regulations, these products may harbour harmful pathogens. Additionally, their low nutrient contents negatively affect their large-scale usage due to very high energy costs and carbon footprint associated with their transportation and application. On the other hand, organic fertilizers contain a wide array of natural chelating agents that enhance the nutrients uptake by plant roots.
Integrative approachThe previous paragraph briefly outlined the various pros and cons, regarding the usage of chemical and organic fertilizers. But this does not imply that growers should stick to one type only. It is strongly recommended that a judicious combination of mineral fertilizers with organic and biological sources of nutrients be promoted for normal agricultural management, at flexible ratios that depend on the local agronomical conditions, actual prices and on the grower's approach. Furthermore, the well documented positive impact of biostimulants and biofertilizers, or soil conditioners, suggests an approach that also integrates them in normal agricultural management, combined with both chemical and organic fertilizers.
According to IFA’s publication at July 2021, the world's forecast consumption for 2021 amounted to some 111 million tonnes of N, 50 million tonnes of P and 39 million tonnes of K. The continuous, almost metronomic consumption growth trend of mineral fertilizers leaves no doubt about their central role in agricultural management for decades to come. And the organic fertilizers are a welcome addition to the increasing demand for specialty fertilizers worldwide. ●
Reference:Mechanism of action of nitrification inhibitors based on dimethylpyrazole: A matter of chelation.
Corrochano-Monsalve, M., González-Murua, C., Bozal-Leorri, A., Lezama, L., Artetxe, B. 2021.
PMID: 32890835; DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141885. Sci Total Environ. 2021 Jan 15;752:141885.
Protecting against nitrogen losses after field application is one way to increase plant'snitrogen use efficiency.
For decades, scientists have been stumped by the signals plants send themselves to initiate photosynthesis, the process of turning sunlight into sugars. Researchers with the University of California Riverside (UCR) have now decoded those previously opaque signals.
For over 50 years, botanists have known that the command center of a plant cell, the nucleus, sends instructions to other parts of the cell, compelling them to move forward with photosynthesis. These instructions come in the form of proteins, and without them, plants won’t turn green or grow.
“Our challenge was that the nucleus encodes hundreds of proteins containing building blocks for the smaller organelles. Determining which ones are the signal to them to trigger photosynthesis was like finding needles in a haystack,” said UCR botany professor Meng Chen.
The process the scientists in Chen’s laboratory used to find four of these proteins is now documented in a Nature Communications paper.
Previously, Chen’s team demonstrated that certain proteins in plant nuclei are activated by light, kicking off photosynthesis. These four newly identified proteins are part of that reaction, sending a signal that transforms small organs into chloroplasts, which generate growth-fueling sugars.
Chen compares the whole photosynthesis process to a symphony. “The conductors of the symphony are proteins in the nucleus called photoreceptors that respond to light. We showed in this paper that both red and blue light-sensitive photoreceptors initiate the symphony. They activate genes that encode the building blocks of photosynthesis.”
The unique situation, in this case, is that the symphony is performed in two “rooms” in the cell, by both local (nucleus) and remote musicians. As such, the conductors (photoreceptors), who are present only in the nucleus, must send the remotely located musicians some messages over distance. This last step is controlled by the four newly discovered proteins that travel from the nucleus to the chloroplasts.
“The reason we can survive on this planet is because organisms like plants can do photosynthesis. Without them there are no animals, including humans,” Chen said. “A full understanding of and ability to manipulate plant growth is vital for food security.” ●
New research has found that nanotechnology can reduce the environmental impact of agriculture by using the technology in developing efficient fertilizers and pesticides.
Researchers at the Utah Water Research Laboratory in the U.S., working with an international team of scientists, sought to understand if nanotechnology could develop fertilizers and pesticides that produced less greenhouse gases while also being economically viable. The study, led by Yiming Su of the Utah Water Research Laboratory and USU Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, found that by using nanotechnology, traditional agrochemicals can be transformed into more effective and efficient formula, leading to increased economic benefits for farmers and a lower impact on the environment.
The researchers published a paper in Nature Food describing both the positive effects of nanofertilizers and nanopesticides as well as the need to optimize the new technology for further adoption. While nanotechnology does have the ability to save costs for growers on a smaller scale, it is not yet ready for widespread use.
“While there are many groundbreaking findings, it was unknown whether and how the innovation of these nano-enabled agrochemicals contributes to the sustainable development of agriculture,” Su said. This question led to a cost-benefit analysis over whether nanofertilizers and pesticides were both environmentally friendly and worth the added cost to farmers.
Nano-enabled fertilizers and pesticides work by transforming traditional agrochemicals into a nano formula that delivers nutrients in a more targeted fashion. This makes the fertilizers and pesticides more efficient and lowers the environmental impact.
While there are up-front costs associated with the nanotechnology in agriculture, Su and his team hope to show how these costs can be made up with the more efficient delivery of high-efficiency nano nutrients and pesticides to the proper places within a plant. This would limit both the overapplication of fertilizers and pesticides, as well lower the environmental impact.
A combination of further research and investment in nanotechnology will likely prove beneficial to its widespread implementation. Overall, the research provides strong evidence that the innovation of nano-enabled agrochemicals represents a significant step forward in the pursuit of sustainable agriculture and food production. ●
Researchers have discovered how plant roots adapt their shape to maximize their uptake of water, pausing branching when they lose contact with water and only resuming once they reconnect with moisture, ensuring they can survive even in the driest conditions.
Plant scientists from the University of Nottingham (UK) have discovered a novel water sensing mechanism that they have called ‘hydro-signalling’, which shows how hormone movement is linked with water fluxes. The findings have been published in Science.
Using X-ray micro-CT imaging researchers were able to reveal that roots alter their shape in response to external moisture availability by linking the movement of water with plant hormone signals that control root branching.
“When roots are in contact with moisture, a key hormone signal (auxin) moves inwards with water, triggering new root branches. However, when roots lose contact with moisture, they rely on internal water sources that mobilises another hormone signal (ABA) outwards, which acts to block the inwards movement of the branching signal,” said Dr. Poonam Mehra, EMBO and Marie-Curie Postdoctoral fellow, School of Biosciences. “This simple, yet elegant mechanism enables plant roots to fine tune their shape to local conditions and optimize foraging.”
According to Professor Malcolm Bennett, co-lead on the research, the research is important for understanding how to futureproof crops and find ways to ensure successful crop yields even in the most challenging climates. “We are already experiencing a hotter climate and designing plants that can still access water in these conditions is vital and this research is an all important step in understanding how to do this.”
The research was the result of an international team of scientists based in the UK, Belgium, Sweden, U.S. and Israel. ●
The study provides critical information about the key genes and processes controlling root branching in response to limited water availability, helping scientists design novel approaches to manipulate root architecture to enhance water capture and yield in crops.
Photo: University of Nottingham
Canada-based Terramera has formed a new majority-owned subsidiary, enrichAg, which will focus on commercializing its soil enrichment platform.
The seed round is led with a USD$6 million investment from At One Ventures (AOV). The funding will advance the launch of enrichSoil, a solution the company states delivers real-time soil analysis results with 99 percent accuracy. EnrichSoil can be used to optimize fertilizer use and to understand and improve soil health.
The company stated this is the first technology that enables farmers and agronomists to self-test nutrient levels including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and carbon. An initial limited commercial launch is set in 2023 with further rollout and development planned throughout the year. The company plans follow-ons to complete its current round to a maximum of $15 million.
“EnrichSoil produces accurate maps of soil fertility and carbon across fields to show how healthy the soil and farm profits can become,” said Terramera founder & CEO, Karn Manhas. ●
Tomato leaf with Phosphorus deficiency showing discolouration
Phosphorous is a vital component of essential molecules in plant cells and plays a major role in the growth of new tissue and the division of cells. Central to nearly every plant process that involves energy transfer, from the beginning of seedling growth through to the formation of grain and maturity, phosphorus is also necessary for building proteins and other compounds.
Phosphorus deficiency on the other hand can have a devastating effect on the health of plants, resulting in weakened root development, decreased resistance to abiotic stress and, ultimately, poorer crop quality and yield.
To combat this, Chr. Hansen, has developed a biostimulant with a unique B megaterium strain (CH9100) that can significantly increase phosphorus availability and uptake in soil.
Science-based, data-drivenWhile the crop biostimulant market is increasing at a phenomenal rate, significant challenges remain, not least in the overpromising and underdelivering of their benefits. At Chr. Hansen we have long focused on the importance of rigorous science and extensive lab and field trial data when developing biological products. According to Lars Moelbak, head of innovation for animal and plant health and nutrition at Chr. Hansen, it is this commitment to scientific knowhow that “we feel differentiates us from
some of our competitors. We are well aware the market is crowded with products based on unsubstantiated claims. That’s why we focus on the science.”
From the lab to the fieldAfter testing several hundred bacterial strains, the early promise of CH9100 was revealed in laboratory tests, where the bacteria were shown to significantly improve the solubilization of ‘bound up’ phosphorus – in some cases by more than 10 times as compared to other bacilli.
The laboratory is one thing, but how about real-life conditions?
To find out, Chr. Hansen’s plant health team in the U.S. undertook nine commercial trials in various locations across Idaho, Minnesota and Iowa. The field trials measured corn with no bacterial inoculant (untreated) versus corn treated with Bacillus megaterium (CH9100). All other crop management practices, including tillage, manure application, irrigation timings, weed control, insect control and fertilizer were the same between the two treatments.
To calculate phosphorus uptake, average dry matter weights of the plants were multiplied by the phosphorus content of the samples submitted for laboratory analysis of nutrient content. The data was then analyzed statistically by simple unpaired t-tests.
Improved uptake By measuring dry matter weights of plants in the early season (Figure 1) and late season (Figure 2), and analysing the phosphorus content of the plants, we were able to evaluate differences in apparent phosphorus uptake.
Early season and late season apparent phosphorus uptakewere both greater (P < 0.15) in CH9100 treated corn comparedto untreated corn.
“Taken together,” says Moelbak, “these observations support the claims that CH9100 not only improves the availability of phosphorus in these soils but also provided a direct mechanism for improving phosphorus uptake.”
They also highlight the importance of conducting trials in real-life conditions.
“It’s not enough to tell our customers that our products work – we need to show them that they work. So conducting trails in real world conditions is paramount.”
Based on the success of these trials, Chr. Hansen is now working hard on bringing a product to market that can not only help address phosphorus deficiency but also improve crop yield. ●
Figure 1
Figure 2
Phosphorous is a vital component of essential molecules in plant cells.
